Intellectual Property and Common Heritage: The Cultural Legacy of Noodles in China and Indonesia – 知识产权与人类共同文化遗产：中国与印度尼西亚面食文化的传承与发展

Honorary Professor Dr. R. Narendra Jatna,S.H., LL.M

Professorial Inaugural Lecture
Fujian Polytechnic Normal University
Fuqing, 26 June 2025

Introduction
Excellencies, distinguished faculty, and dear students
引言
各位阁下、尊敬的教师们、亲爱的同学们：
Your Excellencies,
Prof. Wu Keshou, President of Fujian Polytechnic Normal University
Prof. Jiang Xingshan, Vice President of Fujian Polytechnic Normal University
Mr. Shao Jun, Deputy Director of the Human Resources Department
Ms. Weng Chaokui, Deputy Director of the International Cooperation and Exchange Department (Person-In-Charge)
Prof. Song Yuan, Dean of the Faculty of Culture and Law (School of Overseas Education)
Mrs. Chen Lin, Deputy Director of the Third Procuratorial Department of Fuqing People’s Procuratorate
Mr. Zheng Erming, President of Haikou Court of Fuqing People’s Court
Mrs. Nur Evi Rahmawati, economic minister counselor of the Indonesian Embassy in China
My good friend Dr. Ding Chong thanks for your help and support.
distinguished guest, and dear students good afternoon. (ta cia xia wu hao)!
尊敬的：
吴克寿 校长
姜兴山 副校长
邵 俊 人事处副处长
翁朝葵 对外合作与交流处副处长（主持工作）
宋 原 文化与法律学院(海外教育学院)院长
陈 琳 福清市人民检察院第三检察部副主任
郑而明 福清市人民法院海口法庭庭长
我的好朋友丁冲老师，感谢您的支持和帮助
及信用风险管理与法律防控专业师生代表、印尼留学生代表

It is an honor to speak today on a topic that bridges academic insight and diplomatic understanding: the intersection of Intellectual Property (IP) and common heritage, through the humble yet profound example of noodles. Noodles – a simple staple enjoyed by millions – serve as a cultural and culinary symbol that links nations. In particular, China and Indonesia share a rich noodle heritage that offers a lens into how traditional knowledge travels and transforms, and how we might balance shared cultural practices with the frameworks of IP and national identity. Today, I will explore the historical origins of noodles in both China and Indonesia, delve into their cultural importance in each nation, and examine how this shared heritage can both unite cultures and spark discussions on IP and traditional knowledge. I will also highlight relevant treaties, cultural exchange agreements, and diplomatic initiatives that engage both countries in protecting and celebrating culinary heritage.
今天能够就一个融合学术洞见与外交理解的主题发表演讲，我感到无比荣幸。这个主题是：知识产权与共同文化遗产的交汇点，我们将通过一个朴素却意义深远的例子——面食，来进行探讨。面食，作为数以百万计民众日常饮食的一部分，不仅是一种简单的主食，更是连接各国文化与烹饪传统的象征。特别是中国与印度尼西亚， 两国在面食方面共享着丰富的文化遗产，这使我们得以从中观察传统知识如何跨越国界传播与演变，并进一步思考我们如何在尊重国家身份的同时，于知识产权框架下平衡与保护这些共享的文化实践。今天，我将从历史角度探讨中印两国面食的起源，深入分析其在各自文化中的重要地位，并讨论这种共同的饮食遗产如何既能够成为促进文化融合的纽带，也可能引发有关传统知识与知识产权的新对话。此外，我还将重点介绍与该议题相关的国际条约、文化交流协议，以及两国在保护和弘扬烹饪遗产方面所开展的外交倡议与合作项目。

Employing historical jurisprudence, we recognize that pre-modern Chinese and Indonesian legal thought treated culinary knowledge—such as noodle-making techniques—as a communal asset rather than proprietary inventions, a perspective that informs contemporary IP approaches. In imperial China, Confucian and Legalist traditions emphasized social harmony and collective welfare: recipes and artisanal methods were transmitted within families or guilds under customary norms, with regulations focusing on food safety and communal order rather than exclusive rights to knowledge. Likewise, Indonesian adat law regards recipes and preparation methods as part of a community’s shared heritage, governed by customary obligations to share and transmit knowledge for communal benefit, with no notion of a sole “inventor”. By understanding these historical jurisprudential foundations, modern IP frameworks can adopt sui generis protections—such as geographical indications or traditional knowledge registries—that acknowledge communal origins, ensure benefitsharing, and maintain authenticity, thus aligning statutory regimes with centuries-old norms of collective stewardship rather than imposing individual monopolies over cultural practices.
从历史法理学的角度来看，我们可以认识到，在前现代中国与印度尼西亚的法 律思想中，诸如制作面食等烹饪知识被视为一种集体资产，而非个人专属的发明。这 一传统观念对当代知识产权制度具有重要启示意义。在古代中国，儒家与法家传统共 同强调社会和谐与集体福祉。食谱与手工技艺多在家族或行会内部依照习惯法代代相 传，相关的法律规范关注的是食品安全与社会秩序，而非对知识的排他性权利。同样， 印尼的**习惯法（Adat  Law）**也将食谱与料理技法视为社群共有的文化遗产，并以共享与传承为义务，由此造福整个社区。在这种法理传统下，并不存在“唯一发明人” 的观念。正是基于这样的历史法理基础，当代知识产权制度可以通过引入特殊保护机 制（sui generis protection），如地理标志保护或传统知识登记制度，更好地承认这些知识的集体起源，实现利益共享，保障文化真实性。如此，现代成文法体系将更 好地契合延续数百年的集体托管与共享精神，而非将文化实践纳入个人垄断的框架之 中。

Historical Origins of Noodles in China and Indonesia Noodles in China – An Ancient Invention:
中国与印度尼西亚面食的历史起源
中国的面食——古老的发明：
China is often regarded as the cradle of the noodle. Archaeological and textual evidence suggests that the Chinese have been making noodles for millennia. In fact, the earliest record of noodles was discovered in northwestern China, dating back around 4,000 yearsBy the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), noodles made from wheat dough were already a prominent food for the people. Some historians even posit that noodles could have existed during earlier dynasties (Qin or Zhou), though the exact timeline is debated. What is clear is that over four thousand years of history, the noodle became a “significant and inseparable” part of Chinese culture, evolving in ingredients and forms across different eras and regions. Early noodles were typically formed by kneading dough and cutting or pulling it into long strips. Notably, a 2005 archaeological discovery at the Lajia site uncovered a bowl of ancient noodles (likely millet-based), providing tangible proof that Chinese people were enjoying noodles four millennia ago.
中国常被认为是面食的发源地。考古与文献资料显示，中国人制作和食用面条已有数千年历史。实际上，世界上最早的面条记录是在中国西北部发现的，距今约有四千年之久。早在汉代（公元前 206 年－公元 220 年），以小麦面团制成的面条就已成为民众的重要主食。一些历史学者甚至认为，早在更早的朝代，如秦朝或周朝，中国人就可能已经食用面条，尽管确切的时间线仍存在学术争议。但可以肯定的是，在四千多年的发展过程中，面条已成为中国文化中不可或缺的重要组成部分，并在不同时期与地域中演化出多样的原料与形态。最早的面条通常通过和面后切条或拉制成长条形。值得一提的是，2005 年在喇家遗址的考古发掘中，发现了一碗保存完好的古代面条 （可能为黍米制成），这为中国人在四千年前就已食用面条提供了有力的实物证。

Importantly, China not only innovated noodles at home but also served as a crossroads for noodle dissemination. Through the Silk Road trade routes, Chinese noodles found their way to Central Asia, Persia, and even indirectly to Europe, influencing the development of pasta in the West. Indeed, historians often dub the Silk Road the “Noodle Road,” as Arab traders carrying dried dough helped introduce early forms of noodles across Asia. Over centuries, China developed countless types of noodles – from hand-pulled lamian to knife-cut dao xiao mian – showcasing over two thousand different noodle-making methods. This creativity at home allowed Chinese noodles to influence the entire East Asian region’s noodle culture, spreading to countries like Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Thailand, and notably, Indonesia.
值得强调的是，中国不仅在本土创新并发展了面食文化，还作为面条传播的十字路口， 将这一饮食传统带向世界。通过丝绸之路的贸易路线，中国面条传入中亚、波斯，甚 至间接影响了欧洲的意大利面发展。历史学者常将丝绸之路称为“ 面条之路” （Noodle Road），正是因为阿拉伯商人携带干面团，将早期形式的面条传播至亚洲各地。经过数百年的演变，中国发展出数以千计的面条类型，例如手拉面（拉面）、刀削面等，仅面条制作工艺就有超过两千种之多。这种本土创造力使得中国面条文化对整个东亚地区产生深远影响，传播至日本、韩国、越南、泰国，尤其是印度尼西亚等国家。

Noodles in Indonesia – A Cross-Cultural Adoption:
印度尼西亚的面食——一种跨文化的融合与采纳
Indonesia’s noodle story is a testament to cultural exchange and adaptation. Historical records indicate that noodles became part of the Indonesian diet through contact with Chinese traders and immigrants. Chinese influences are strongly evident in Indonesian cuisine, particularly with the adoption of various Chinese noodle dishes into what we now call ChineseIndonesian cuisine (masakan Tionghoa-Indonesia). In fact, it is well established that Indonesian noodles originated from Chinese influence, a result of immigration of Chinese settlers to the archipelago. These settlers, dating back many centuries, brought with them their culinary techniques, including noodle-making, which were gradually localized in the Indonesian context.
印度尼西亚的面食故事，正是文化交流与本土化融合的真实写照。历史资料表明，面条通过与中国商人和移民的接触，逐渐融入印尼民众的饮食生活之中。中国文化对印尼饮食文化的影响十分深远，特别是在各种中式面食被采纳并发展为我们今天所称的“中印尼融合菜系”（Masakan Tionghoa-Indonesia）方面尤为显著。事实上，印尼面食的起源被普遍认为是源自中国的影响，是华人移民迁徙至群岛所带来的结果。
这些定居者自数百年前便将包括制面技艺在内的烹饪传统带入印尼，并在长期的交流中逐渐实现地方化适应，形成具有印尼特色的面食风味。

One remarkable historical trace of noodles in Indonesia comes from the Majapahit era on the island of Java. According to historian Denys Lombard, an old Javanese inscription from the year 1391 mentions the word hanglaksa, meaning “vermicelli maker” in the Kawi language. This suggests that by the late 14th century – well before modern nation-states – noodle-like dishes (laksa refers to a kind of rice vermicelli) were known in Java. The term laksaitself likely has origins in Sanskrit or Persian (meaning “one hundred thousand”, perhaps referring to the multitude of noodle strands). Such evidence implies that noodles were consumed in Java over 600 years ago, possibly introduced via trade routes or migration. Chinese Muslim explorer Zheng He’s voyages in the 15th century and the thriving commerce between China and the
Indonesian kingdoms would have further solidified the presence of Chinese culinary staples like noodles in local diets.
印度尼西亚关于面食的一个显著历史记载可追溯至爪哇岛的满者伯夷王朝时期。据法国历史学家**德尼·龙巴尔（Denys Lombard）考证，1391 年的一块古爪哇碑文中提到了“hanglaksa”一词，在古卡威语中意为“米粉制作人”。这一记载表明，早在 14 世纪末——远在现代民族国家出现之前——爪哇地区已出现类似面条的食物。“laksa”所指的是一种米制粉条（类似米粉），而该词可能源自梵语或波斯语，原意为“十万”，或许是用来形容粉条数量繁多的形象表达。这一证据说明，在 600 多年前的爪哇，面条类食品已被食用，极有可能是通过贸易路线或人口迁徙而引入的。此外，郑和下西洋以及 15 世纪中国与印尼诸王国之间繁荣的商业往来，也进一步推动了中国传统饮食——如面条——在印尼本土饮食中的传播与扎根。
Over time, noodles in Indonesia underwent indigenization – they were assimilated and diversified to suit local tastes and ingredients. For example, wheat noodles (called mie in Indonesian, from the Hokkien Chinese word miⁿ) became popular and were combined with native spices, soy sauce, and local produce. Dishes like mie goreng (fried noodles) and kwetiau goreng (fried flat rice noodles) became staples, evolving from Chinese prototypes into distinctly Indonesian favorites. Regions across the archipelago created their own noodle specialties – from Mie Aceh in Sumatra with its spicy curry flavors, to Mie Jawa in Java with sweet soy sauce, to bihun(rice vermicelli) integrated into the soup soto ayam. By the modern era, instant noodles also took Indonesia by storm: since the 1970s, instant noodle brands (most famously Indomie) became a household staple, with Indonesia today ranking among the world’s largest instant noodle consumers. Certain Indonesian brands like Indomie have even risen to global fame, becoming an iconic export found in far-flung countries and contributing to a sense of national culinary pride.
随着时间的推移，面条在印度尼西亚经历了本土化与多样化的过程，逐渐融合并适应了当地的口味与食材。例如，小麦面条在印尼语中称为“mie”，这一名称源自福建话“miⁿ”，在印尼广泛流行，并与当地香料、酱油以及农产品结合，形成独具风味的特色。诸如炒面（mie goreng）与炒粿条（kwetiau goreng）等菜肴，虽然源自中华料理，但在本地发展演变为具有鲜明印尼特色的国民美食。群岛各地亦纷纷创制出独有的面条风味——从苏门答腊的亚齐炒面（Mie Aceh），融合辛辣咖喱风味；到爪哇的爪哇炒面（Mie Jawa），以甜酱油为主调；再到将米粉（bihun）融入鸡汤 soto ayam 中的创意搭配。
进入现代社会后，方便面在印尼掀起风潮。自 20 世纪 70 年代以来，方便面品牌（最著名者为 Indomie）成为印尼家庭的日常主食。如今，印尼是全球方便面消费量最高的国家之一。其中，一些印尼品牌如 Indomie 甚至走向世界舞台，在世界各地的超市均可见其身影，成为印尼国家饮食文化的象征与出口名片，也进一步增强了国民的饮食自豪感。

Cultural Importance of Noodles in Chinese Tradition
面食在中国传统文化中的重要地位
Beyond mere sustenance, noodles carry deep cultural significance in China. They are intertwined with Chinese social customs, values, and even symbolism. In Chinese culture, the form of the noodle – long and continuous – famously symbolizes longevity. It is a longstanding custom to eat “longevity noodles” on birthdays, as a way to bless someone with a long life. At weddings and New Year celebrations, specific noodle dishes often appear to represent good fortune and family unity. Different types of noodles are traditionally eaten on different occasions or seasons: for example, folklore records suggest eating noodles with gravy when moving into a new house or dragon whisker noodles on the second day of the second lunar month. Each of these practices attaches meaning to noodles – whether it be health, prosperity, or harmony – turning a simple food into a bearer of blessings and hopes.
在中国，面食不仅仅是果腹之物，更承载着深厚的文化意义。它与中国社会习俗、价值观甚至象征意义紧密相连。在中华文化中，面条细长不断的形状象征着长寿，因此“长寿面”成为生日庆祝中不可或缺的传统食物，用以表达对寿星长命百岁的祝福。在婚礼、春节等重要节庆中，特定的面条菜肴也常常登场，寓意吉祥如意与家庭和 睦。不同种类的面条往往对应特定的节日或人生时刻。例如，民间习俗中，乔迁新居时食用带卤汁的面条以寓意生活有滋有味；农历二月初二“龙抬头”节日则常食用 “龙须面”，象征好运抬头、顺势而上。这些看似平凡的饮食行为背后，蕴含着对健康、富足与和谐的美好祝愿，使得面条这一日常食物升华为承载祝福与希望的文化符号。
Chinese noodles also reflect the nation’s core values and stories. The variety of noodle-related legends – such as the tale of the “dutiful son’s noodle” or the origin of Crossing-the-Bridge noodles in Yunnan – encapsulate virtues like filial piety, perseverance in education, and familial love/ For instance, the “longevity noodles” mentioned earlier emphasize the value placed on elders and longevity. By partaking in these dishes during rituals and festivals, the Chinese people pass down traditional values, family bonds, and cultural identity to each generation. In essence, the noodle in China is more than food – it is an edible cultural artifact, representing 4,000 years of history and continuity. Scholars note that the evolution of noodle varieties over time mirrors China’s historical changes and regional diversity, making noodles a culinary chronicle of Chinese civilization.
中国的面食不仅展现了丰富的饮食文化，也反映了中华民族核心价值观与传统故事。诸多与面条相关的传说，如“孝子面”的故事或云南“过桥米线”的起源传说，蕴含着孝道、勤学不辍、亲情深厚等传统美德。例如，前文提及的“长寿面”正是强调对长辈敬重与健康长寿的追求。在重要节庆与仪式中食用面条，不仅是一种饮食行为， 更是一种文化传承的仪式，使中华民族的传统价值观、家族情感与文化身份得以一代代延续。从本质上说，面条在中国不仅仅是食物，更是一种可食用的文化载体，凝聚着四千年的历史与文化连续性。学者指出，中国面条的种类演变与地域差异密切相 关，反映了中国在历史变迁中的政治、经济、与地理多样性，因此，面条本身也可被视为中国文明发展的饮食编年史。
It is also notable how pervasive noodles are in daily life across China. From the northern love of wheat noodles like lamian (hand-pulled noodles) and dao xiao mian (knife-cut noodles), to the southern preference for rice noodles like mi-fen or hefen, nearly every part of China has its own beloved noodle dishes. This regional tapestry showcases China’s unity in diversity – a common cultural thread of noodle cuisine binding together different provinces, each with unique flavors and ingredients. Enjoying a bowl of noodles – whether a simple bowl of beef noodle soup on a street corner or a celebratory plate of fried noodles at a banquet – is a quotidian experience shared by rich and poor, young and old. In that sense, noodles serve as a social leveler and cultural common denominator in China, reinforcing a shared identity.
值得注意的是，面条在中国人民日常生活中的普遍性与渗透力。无论是北方人钟爱的 小麦面食，如手拉面（拉面）、刀削面，还是南方人偏爱的米制面条，如米粉（米粉） 或河粉（河粉），几乎中国每一个地区都有其独特且深受喜爱的面食代表。这种区域 性的面条风格编织出一幅“多元一体”的文化图景——在食材与风味的差异中，面条 成为连接各省、统一文化的共同纽带。无论是在街头小摊上吃一碗牛肉面，还是在节 庆宴席上享用一盘炒面，这一日常行为跨越了阶层与年龄的界限，是富人与平民、长 者与儿童共同拥有的生活体验。正因如此，面条在中国不仅是一种食物，也是一种社 会的平衡器与文化的共识象征，在无形中强化了中华民族的共同身份与文化认同。

Cultural Importance of Noodles in Indonesian Tradition
面食在印度尼西亚传统文化中的重要地位
In Indonesia, noodles hold an equally cherished place in the culinary landscape, though their significance arises from a blend of indigenous and immigrant influences. Indonesia’s cuisine is famously diverse – a product of its multi-ethnic society and history of global interactions – and noodles have become a “deeply ingrained” part of this culinary tradition. Although originally introduced by Chinese migrants, noodle dishes are now thoroughly localized and beloved by Indonesians of all backgrounds. They are found everywhere: from humble street carts and warung stalls in villages, to family dinner tables, to high-end restaurants in Jakarta. Over generations, noodle recipes in Indonesia incorporated local ingredients (such as chili peppers, peanuts, sweet soy sauce, coconut milk, native spices), creating hybrid dishes that are unique to Indonesia yet reflective of crosscultural heritage.
在印度尼西亚，面食在饮食文化中同样占据着重要而珍贵的地位，其意义源于本土传统与外来影响的融合。印尼美食因其多民族社会结构与长期的对外交流历史而呈现出丰富多样的特色，而面食已成为这一美食传统中“根深蒂固”的一部分。虽然最初是由华人移民引入，然而如今的面条料理已经彻底本土化，并受到各族裔印尼人群体的广泛喜爱。从乡村中的街边小摊、简朴的 warung 餐馆，到雅加达高级餐厅的菜单上， 面食无处不在。几代人以来，印尼的面食逐渐融入本地食材与口味（如辣椒、花生、甜酱油、椰奶、各类本土香料），发展出具有印尼独特风格的融合型菜肴。这些料理不仅展示了印尼饮食文化的创造力，也体现了印尼社会跨文化遗产的包容性与多元性。
A classic example is Laksa Betawi, a coconut-milk-based noodle soup from Jakarta. Historical accounts tell us that Chinese immigrants in Batavia (old Jakarta) combined Chinese wheat noodles with local Indonesian ingredients like coconut milk and herbs to suit local tastes. Over time, laksa Betawi evolved into a signature dish of the Betawi people (native Jakartans), so much so that today it is recognized officially as part of Jakarta’s cultural heritage. In fact, the Jakarta government has listed laksa Betawi among some 20 beloved traditional dishes to preserve as representative of the city’s multicultural identity. This is a powerful testament: a noodle dish that began as an immigrant fusion is now embraced as a proud symbol of local heritage. Similar stories can be told of other Indonesian noodle favorites – for instance, mie goreng (Indonesian fried noodles) started from Chinese fried noodle techniques, but after generations it features distinctly Indonesian sweet-soy flavors and chilies, and is often served at Indonesian festivities and family gatherings as a comfort food. Mie goreng has become so ubiquitous that it’s seen as “a symbol of Indonesian cuisine on the global stage,” representing national identity and pride for Indonesians abroad.
一个经典例子是“Betawi 叻沙”**（Laksa Betawi），这是一种起源于雅加达的椰奶汤面。据历史记载，早期在巴达维亚（即今日雅加达）定居的华人移民将中式小麦面条与印尼本地的椰奶、香草等食材结合，以适应当地人口味。随着时间的推移， Betawi 叻沙逐渐演变为雅加达人（Betawi 族）代表性的传统菜肴，并最终被正式认定为雅加达文化遗产的一部分。事实上，雅加达市政府已将 Betawi 叻沙列入约二十种重要传统菜肴清单中，作为代表城市多元文化身份的重要象征。这一案例极具象征意 义：一道原本源自移民融合背景的面条菜肴，如今已成为当地人引以为傲的文化符 号。类似的故事也可以在其他印尼面食中看到，例如印尼炒面（Mie Goreng）。该菜肴起源于中式炒面的烹饪技法，但经过多代演变，逐渐发展出带有印尼甜酱油风味和辣椒特色的独有风格，常作为节庆或家庭聚会中的慰藉食物出现。Mie Goreng 现已在印尼饮食中无处不在，并被誉为**“在全球舞台上代表印尼美食的象征”，承载着国家认同与海外印尼人群的民族自豪感。
Noodles in Indonesia illustrate the idea of shared heritage beautifully: they are a cultural hybrid that unites Indonesian and Chinese legacies. They carry no specific religious or ritual symbolism like in China’s longevity customs, but they embody the values of diversity and unity – Indonesia’s motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (“Unity in Diversity”) could well describe the diverse origins of its noodle dishes coexisting in one national cuisine. Noodles also play a role in social life – a quick bowl of bakso noodle soup with friends, or sharing plates of mie goreng at celebrations, is integral to community bonding. Through noodles, Indonesians celebrate a pluralistic heritage: one that honors local creativity while acknowledging foreign contributions. This makes noodles not only a unifying comfort food but also a conversation starter about the rich tapestry of Indonesian history.
印度尼西亚的面食生动展现了“共同文化遗产”的理念：它们作为文化混合体，融合了印尼与中华传统的历史与风味。虽然不像中国那样具有特定的宗教或仪式象征意义（如长寿面的习俗），但印尼面食体现了多元与团结的价值观——正如印尼国训 “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika”（异中求同）**，它恰好也可以用来形容印尼面食所体现的多源文化在统一民族饮食中的和谐共存。面食在印尼社会生活中也扮演着重要角色：例如，与朋友一起吃一碗肉丸面（bakso），或在节日庆典上分享几盘炒面（mie goreng），都是社区凝聚力的重要体现。通过面条，印尼人庆祝其多元主义文化遗产 ——既尊重本地的创新，又承认外来文化的贡献。这使得面食不仅仅是一种令人慰藉的全民美食，也成为关于印尼历史多样性的对话起点。

Noodles as a Shared Heritage – Unity and Intellectual Discourse
面食作为共同文化遗产：团结与知识对话的桥梁
Given this background, it becomes clear that noodles represent a common heritage between China and Indonesia – part of a broader Asian culinary continuum that transcends borders. This shared heritage can be a unifying cultural element. At the human level, both Chinese and Indonesians express a similar joy and passion for noodle dishes. A student from Beijing and a student from Jakarta may have very different backgrounds, but both might share a love for a hearty bowl of noodles, whether it’s lamian or mie tek-tek. This commonality offers a foundation for people-to-people friendship. As one observer noted, throughout history in Indonesia, even when other aspects of Chinese-Indonesian relations were fraught, “there has always been one sure place where the two cultures mixed in near perfect harmony — the kitchen”. Food can indeed be a diplomatic bridge: the act of enjoying each other’s dishes fosters understanding and appreciation.
在上述背景之下，我们不难看出，面食代表了中国与印度尼西亚之间的共同文化遗产，是跨越国界的更广泛亚洲饮食传统的一部分。这种共享的饮食遗产可以作为促进文化认同与团结的纽带。在日常生活层面，中国人与印尼人都对面条充满热爱与热 情。来自北京的学生与来自雅加达的学生，尽管文化背景截然不同，却可能都钟情于一碗热气腾腾的面条——无论是拉面还是 Mie Tek-Tek。这种共鸣为人与人之间的友谊奠定了基础。正如一位观察者曾指出，尽管印尼历史上中印关系在某些时期曾经历波折，“但始终有一个地方，两种文化几乎总能达到完美融合——那就是厨房。” 食物的确可以成为一种外交的桥梁：共同享用彼此的料理，不仅带来味觉上的满足，更促进了理解、尊重与欣赏。
Moreover, acknowledging noodles as a joint heritage encourages us to view culture in terms of exchange rather than ownership. China can rightfully be proud of its invention and mastery of noodles, while Indonesia can be proud of its innovations and unique expressions of noodle cuisine. Rather than compete over “who invented” a dish, the narrative of noodles invites a shared pride – a recognition that human cultures enrich each other. In our interconnected world, many beloved traditions are interwoven across cultures, just as the strands of a noodle may intertwine. This perspective aligns with the spirit of initiatives like UNESCO’s cultural programs, which emphasize that certain cultural practices and knowledge are part of the “common heritage of humanity”, deserving respect and safeguarding by all, not monopolization by one group.
此外，将面食视为共同文化遗产，促使我们以**“交流”而非“归属”**的视角来看待文化。中国理应为其在面食的发明与精湛技艺感到自豪，而印尼也理应为其在面食本土化与创新表达方面感到骄傲。相比于“谁发明了这道菜”的竞争性话语，面条的文化故事鼓励我们共同感到自豪——认识到人类文化是相互交融、彼此滋养的。在这个互联互通的时代，许多我们珍视的传统早已在文化之间相互交织，正如面条本身的缠绕形态一样象征着文化之间的联系与融合。这一观点也契合联合国教科文组织（UNESCO）所倡导的文化项目精神，即某些文化实践与知识构成“人类共同的遗产， 理应受到全人类的尊重与共同保护，而不应被某一群体垄断或私有化。
However, this shared heritage also raises important questions in the realm of Intellectual Property and traditional knowledge: How do we respect and protect cultural traditions that cross national borders? Who has the “right” to claim or commercialize a traditional recipe like noodles? These questions have real-world implications. For instance, imagine if a company tried to patent a centuries-old noodle-making technique, or if one country tried to exclusively trademark the name of a traditional dish – such cases have happened with other foods elsewhere, leading to international disputes. In Southeast Asia, we have seen occasional arguments between neighbors about the origins of certain dishes (for example, debates between countries about who can claim batik or rendang as their own). With noodles shared by China, Indonesia, and beyond, the potential for cultural friction exists if not handled with sensitivity. Each nation naturally feels protective of its cultural identity, yet the overlapping nature of that heritage means no one can exclusively own it.
然而，这种共同的文化遗产也引发了关于知识产权与传统知识领域的重要问题：我们应如何尊重并保护跨越国界的文化传统？ 谁有权利“主张”或“商业化”一道传统菜肴，如面条？这些问题并非理论探讨，而是具有现实法律与政治意义。例如，设想某家公司试图申请一项拥有数百年历史的制面技艺的专利，或某国试图对某道传统菜名进行专属商标注册——类似的情况在其他食品领域已有先例，并曾引发国际争议。在东南亚地区，我们也曾见到邻国之间因某些传统菜肴的起源问题而发生文化主权争议，例如关于**蜡（Batik）或仁当（Rendang）**究竟属于哪个国家的辩论。对于如面条这样由中国、印尼乃至更广泛地区所共享的饮食文化，若处理不当，确实存在产生文化摩擦的潜在风险。每个国家自然都希望保护自身的文化身份，但在文化遗产存在交叉重叠的情况下，这一遗产无法被某一方“独占”。
This is where intellectual property frameworks and diplomacy must work hand-in-hand. Modern IP law was not originally designed for traditional, communal knowledge – a bowl of noodle soup recipe passed down through generations does not have a single “inventor” or a clear date of creation, so it usually cannot be patented or copyrighted in the conventional sense. Indeed, we take for granted that noodles and pasta are part of the world’s commons – no one expects to pay a royalty to China for eating spaghetti, and no Indonesian expects exclusivity over fried noodles. These foods are effectively part of our global public domain. Yet, countries can use certain IP tools to safeguard the authenticity and branding of their particular regional variants. For example, geographical indications (GIs) allow a community to protect the name of a product associated with their region. China has been a leader in this area: it has registered GIs for famous local specialties – including a notable example of Liuzhou Luosifen (snail rice noodles), whose name is now GI-protected so that only noodles made in Liuzhou can be marketed with that name. This kind of protection helps both to preserve cultural identity (preventing outsiders from misusing the name or lowering quality) and to economically benefit the local producers. While “noodles” in general cannot be owned, specific heritage recipes and names can be legally protected as collective traditions. Indonesia, too, has begun exploring geographical indications for its traditional foods (for instance, Java Preanger coffee is GI-protected, and there are calls to protect items like rendang or regional dishes). An important point is that GIs and similar measures do not exclude others from making the food; rather, they ensure credit and quality control for the place of origin. Thus, IP can be wielded not as a tool of cultural monopoly, but as a guardian of authenticity and mutual respect.
正因如此，知识产权制度与文化外交必须携手并进。现代知识产权法律最初并非为传统的、集体性的知识形式而设计——例如一碗祖传的面条食谱，并无明确的“发明 者”或创作时间，因此通常无法通过传统专利或版权方式加以保护。事实上，我们往往理所当然地认为，面条与意大利面已成为全球共享的公共文化资源——没有人会因吃意大利面而向中国支付使用费，也没有印尼人会主张对炒面享有排他性权利。这些食物**实质上属于“全球公有领域”（global public domain）**的一部分。然而， 各国仍可借助某些知识产权工具，来保护其区域性传统美食的正宗性与品牌形象。其中最具代表性的便是**地理标志（Geographical Indications, GIs）**制度，它允许特定社区对与本地紧密相关的产品名称进行法律保护。中国在这一领域处于领先地  位：其已为诸多地方特色产品注册地理标志，例如柳州螺蛳粉便是典型案例。如今， 只有在柳州生产的螺蛳粉才能合法使用该名称进行商业销售。此类保护不仅能够防止外界滥用名称或降低品质标准，从而维护文化身份；同时也能为本地生产者带来实质性的经济收益。虽然“面条”这一整体概念无法被任何国家所“拥有”，但某些具有地域文化特色的传统食谱与命名仍可通过法律形式被视为集体传统知识予以保护。印尼近年来也开始探索对传统食品的地理标志保护，例如**爪哇普朗雅咖啡（Java Preanger coffee）已成功注册为地理标志产品，类似的呼声也在推动如仁当 （Rendang）**或其他地方美食的保护进程。值得强调的是，地理标志与类似制度并非阻止他人制作该食物，而是确保其原产地得到应有的信誉与品质管理。因此，知识产权不应被视为文化垄断的工具，而应成为真实性的守护者与相互尊重的桥梁
Another relevant aspect is the protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions (TCEs) and Traditional Knowledge (TK) in international law. Both China and Indonesia have been active in discussions at the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) about how to safeguard folklore, indigenous knowledge, and traditional arts – including culinary knowledge – from misappropriation. In fact, in May 2024 WIPO member states adopted a landmark treaty addressing the interface of IP with genetic resources and traditional knowledge, the first WIPO treaty to include specific provisions for indigenous peoples and local communities. This suggests a growing international consensus that the wisdom of traditional cultures deserves recognition and protection, even if it doesn’t fit neatly into classic IP categories. While noodles may not be genetic resources, the ethos behind such efforts is highly relevant: it’s about preventing exploitation of communal heritage without compensation or credit. For example, if a biotech firm cannot simply patent a medicinal plant used by indigenous people for centuries (due to new treaties and protocols), similarly one might argue that no company or country should unfairly exploit a traditional dish without acknowledging its cultural source. Both China and Indonesia, as countries with immense intangible heritage, have a stake in these discussions.
另一个密切相关的领域是**国际法中对传统文化表现形式（TCEs）与传统知识（TK） 的保护。中国与印度尼西亚在此方面均表现活跃，长期参与世界知识产权组织（WIPO）**关于如何保护民间传说、原住民知识与传统艺术（包括烹饪知识）不被滥用的国际谈判与倡议。事实上，在 2024 年 5 月，WIPO 成员国通过了一项具有里程碑意义的条约，首次系统性地处理知识产权与遗传资源及传统知识之间的接口问题，这是 WIPO 首个纳入原住民族与地方社区专属条款的国际知识产权条约。这一进展表明， 国际社会日益形成共识：即使传统文化的智慧并不完全符合经典知识产权的范畴，它依然应获得法律承认与保护。虽然面条本身并非遗传资源，但该条约背后的价值理念与此议题密切相关：即防止公共文化遗产被剥削性利用、却得不到应有的尊重或回 报。例如，如今的国际法律框架已逐步禁止生物科技公司对某些被原住民使用了数百年的药用植物进行专利注册，除非遵循知情同意与利益共享机制。以此类比，我们也可以主张：任何公司或国家都不应在未承认其文化来源的前提下，单方面开发利用某道传统菜肴。作为拥有丰富非物质文化遗产的国家，中国与印尼在这一全球性议题中扮演着重要角色，并拥有共同利益与道义责任推动对传统知识与文化表达形式的跨国保护。
On the diplomatic front, there are already frameworks and agreements that encourage a balanced approach to shared culture. The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003) – which both China and Indonesia have ratified – is one key instrument. It establishes that traditions like culinary arts, rituals, and crafts are treasures that communities and nations should inventory, promote, and transmit to future generations (often via UNESCO’s Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage). While this convention does not grant “ownership” in the IP sense, it does foster an environment of respect and cooperation, often encouraging multinational nominations for cross-border cultural practices. We might imagine, in the future, a joint nomination by countries for something like “Asian noodle traditions” as a shared intangible heritage, much like several countries jointly nominated the Mediterranean diet as a cultural heritage of humanity. Such an approach emphasizes common heritage rather than rivalry.
在外交层面，已有多项框架与协议鼓励各国以平衡的态度对待共享文化遗产。其中最为关键的一项国际工具是《2003 年联合国教科文组织保护非物质文化遗产公约》，该公约已获中国与印度尼西亚共同批准。该公约明确指出，包括烹饪艺术、仪式、传统工艺在内的文化实践，是社区与国家共同的宝贵财富，应通过系统性登记、推广与代际传承予以保护——例如通过联合国教科文组织的**“人类非物质文化遗产代表作名录”**机制。尽管该公约并未像知识产权制度那样赋予“所有权”，但它确立了一种尊重、合作与共同责任的国际氛围，并鼓励多国联合申报跨境文化实践的非遗项目。我们或许可以设想未来有朝一日，亚洲各国能够联合提名“亚洲面条传统”作为人类非物质文化遗产，正如多个地中海沿岸国家曾共同申报“地中海饮食”那样。这种方式强调共享与共荣，而非归属与竞争，在促进跨文化理解的同时，也为全球文化治理提供了富有启示意义的合作范式。

Diplomatic Initiatives and Agreements Involving Cuisine and Cultural Heritage
涉及美食与文化遗产的外交倡议与国际协议
Cultural diplomacy has recognized the power of food as a tool for friendship. China and Indonesia have engaged in numerous people-to-people exchange programs that highlight cuisine and culture. For instance, there have been festivals and events in each country celebrating the other’s food: Indonesian food fairs in Chinese cities, and Chinese culinary showcases in Indonesia, often organized by embassies or cultural centers. These events allow citizens to experience each other’s heritage directly through taste and hospitality. At the governmental level, both nations often reference cultural cooperation in their bilateral
agreements. In a recent high-level meeting, China’s leadership affirmed willingness to “expand people-to-people and cultural exchanges” with Indonesia, specifically mentioning cooperation in areas related to food and agriculture to bring benefits to both peoples. This is a clear acknowledgment that food heritage is part of diplomatic engagement. It is not uncommon now for state visits to include a focus on culinary exchange – for example, Chinese state media and Indonesian media alike have celebrated the deep historical culinary connections between the two countries, noting that Jakarta’s cuisine has been enriched by Chinese influence for centuries.
文化外交早已意识到饮食的力量——它不仅是民众交流的媒介，更是一种促进友谊的文化工具。中国与印度尼西亚已开展了多项以饮食与文化为核心内容的民间交流项 目。例如，双方在各自国家定期举办以对方美食为主题的节庆与活动：中国多个城市举办印尼美食展；印尼则承办中国烹饪文化推广活动。这类活动通常由大使馆或文化中心主办，让普通民众通过**“味觉”与“待客之道”**直接体验彼此的文化遗产。在政府层面，文化合作常被纳入中印双边协议之中。近期一次高级别会晤中，中国国家领导人明确表示愿与印尼**“扩大人文与文化交流”，特别指出希望在食品与农业等领域加强合作**，造福两国人民。这一表态无疑表明，饮食文化已成为正式外交互动的重要组成部分。如今，国家访问中包含美食文化交流环节已不再罕见。例如，中印媒体均曾积极报道两国在饮食文化上的深厚渊源，并指出雅加达饮食文化数百年来受中华饮食影响深远。
On the multilateral front, forums like the ASEAN-China Strategic Partnership have cultural cooperation as a pillar. ASEAN and China have jointly organized cultural forums and tourism years, where gastronomy tourism is often featured. By highlighting noodle dishes (among others) as shared attractions, they not only promote tourism but also reinforce a narrative of shared heritage in East and Southeast Asia. Even at the academic level, collaborations occur: universities in China and Indonesia have conducted joint research on food history and cultural studies, shedding light on how dishes like noodles migrated and transformed. This academic diplomacy complements official diplomacy, ensuring that the narrative of shared culture is underpinned by research and mutual understanding.
在多边层面，诸如中国—东盟战略伙伴关系等机制将文化合作列为其重要支柱之一。中国与东盟国家共同举办了多届文化论坛与“ 旅游年” 活动， 其中** 美食旅游（Gastronomy Tourism）**经常被纳入重点内容。通过突出以面条为代表的传统美食作为共同吸引力，这些活动不仅推动了区域旅游业发展，也强化了“东亚与东南亚共享文化遗产”的叙事框架。在学术层面，双方也展开了多项合作：中印高校间开展了饮食史与文化研究的联合课题，探讨如面条等菜肴如何跨区域传播与演变。这种“学术外交”有效补充了官方外交，通过深入研究与知识交流，为共享文化的理解提供了坚实的学理基础与相互认同。
In terms of IP-specific cooperation, both China and Indonesia are members of the WTO and thus bound by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which includes provisions for protecting geographical indications. They also actively participate in WIPO’s Intergovernmental Committee on Traditional Knowledge, Genetic Resources, and Folklore. While not a bilateral treaty, there is a convergence of interest: both countries seek to protect their rich cultural patrimony (be it batik cloth or Beijing opera, herbal remedies or recipes) from unfair appropriation. This has led to each updating their national laws – for example, Indonesia’s copyright law now has clauses recognizing communal copyrights for traditional works held by the state on behalf of communities, and China similarly has a system of National and Provincial Intangible Cultural Heritage lists that function to
document and safeguard traditional crafts and practices (including regional cuisines and techniques).
在知识产权领域的专门合作方面，中国与印度尼西亚均为世界贸易组织（WTO）成员 国，因此共同遵守《与贸易有关的知识产权协定（TRIPS）》，该协定中包含有关地理标志（GIs）保护的条款。此外，两国还积极参与世界知识产权组织（WIPO）下设的政府间委员会（IGC），该委员会专注于传统知识、遗传资源与民间文学艺术表现形式 的国际治理。虽然这并非双边条约，但双方在此议题上的立场高度趋同：即共同致力于防止如蜡染（Batik）布、京剧、中草药、传统食谱等文化遗产被不当挪用或剽窃。这一共同利益诉求也促使双方不断完善本国法律体系。例如，印尼在其最新版《版权法》中新增了条款，承认传统作品的“集体版权”归属国家代表特定社群持 有；而中国则通过国家级与省级非物质文化遗产名录制度，系统性地记录与保护传统工艺与实践，其中也包括地方特色饮食与烹饪技艺。

Finally, it’s worth noting the concept of “gastrodiplomacy” – a form of cultural diplomacy where nations promote their culture through cuisine. Thailand, Korea, and others have done this systematically. Indonesia and China likewise recognize that promoting their food internationally can enhance soft power and mutual goodwill. The popularity of Chinese dim sum or Sichuan cuisine abroad, and the growing global love for Indonesian dishes (like rendang which was once voted among the world’s best foods) show how cuisine opens doors. Joint culinary projects – say a Chinese-Indonesian fusion food festival, or cookbooks featuring chefs from both countries – have the subtle but important effect of building peopleto-people connections and empathy. They remind us that despite political or economic differences, we all share the love of a good meal. In diplomatic receptions, one might even see mie goreng and chow mein served side by side – a delicious symbol of bilateral friendship.
最后，值得特别指出的是“美食外交（Gastrodiplomacy）”这一概念——它是文化外交的一种形式，指各国通过推广本国美食以传播文化、塑造国家形象。泰国、韩国等国家早已系统性地开展美食外交战略，并取得了显著成效。

中国与印度尼西亚同样认识到，向国际社会推广本国美食，不仅有助于提升软实力， 也有助于增强国际友好与互信。例如，中式点心、川菜在海外的广泛欢迎，以及印尼菜肴（如曾被评为世界最佳美食之一的仁当 Rendang）在全球范围内的流行，均表明饮食文化是跨国交流的重要桥梁。中印两国可以通过开展联合美食项目（例如中印融合美食节或由两国主厨共同编撰的烹饪书籍）来深化这种文化联系。这类项目虽然细微，却在潜移默化中促进了民间交往与文化共鸣。这些交流提醒我们：尽管在政治或经济上存在差异，但人类对于美食的热爱是共通的。在某些外交宴会上，我们甚至可以看到印尼炒面（Mie Goreng）与中式炒面（Chow Mein）同桌呈现——这无疑是一种美味且富有象征意义的双边友谊标志。

Conclusion
结语
Ladies and gentlemen, in drawing to a close, let us reflect on what the tale of two countries and their noodles teaches us. The journey of noodles from ancient China to the kitchens of Indonesia exemplifies how culture transcends borders. It is a story of exchange, adaptation, and mutual enrichment – one culture taking something beautiful from another and making it its own, without diminishing the original. Such shared heritage should be a point of pride and unity, not division. It challenges us to rethink the notion of ownership when it comes to culture: sometimes, heritage belongs not to one nation alone but to all who have contributed to it and benefited from it.
女士们，先生们，在演讲的尾声，让我们一同思考：这段关于两国与面条的故事，到 底带给了我们什么启示？从中国古代到今日印尼厨房，面条的旅程充分说明，文化可 以跨越边界、连接人心。这是一个关于交流、融合与相互丰富的故事——一个文化从 另一个文化中吸收美好元素，并将其转化为自身独特表达的过程，而这一过程中，原 有文化的价值并未被削弱，反而得以延续。这样的共享遗产应成为团结与自豪的象征， 而非分裂的根源。它促使我们重新思考“归属”的概念——当涉及文化时，遗产有时 并不只属于一个国家，而是属于所有曾为其贡献、并从中受益的人民。
At the same time, the discussion of intellectual property reminds us that respect and acknowledgment are key. Protecting a cultural heritage does not mean locking it away; it means ensuring it is valued, credited, and preserved. IP law, in its evolving forms, can help strike this balance by recognizing community rights and geographical originswithout hindering the shared enjoyment of cultural goods. We have seen that both China and Indonesia, through international cooperation and national efforts, are working to safeguard their traditions – including culinary ones – in a way that honors their people’s creativity and history.
与此同时，有关知识产权的讨论也提醒我们：尊重与承认是文化传承的核心。保护文 化遗产，并不意味着将其封闭或垄断，而是要确保它被珍视、归属得当、并持续传承。不断发展的知识产权法律，正尝试在其中寻求平衡：在不妨碍公众共享文化成果的前 提下，承认社群的权利与地理起源。这一机制使得文化既可以被保护，又能继续作为 沟通世界的桥梁。我们已经看到，中国与印度尼西亚正通过国际合作与国内立法，努 力保护自身的传统文化——包括饮食文化——以一种既尊重历史、又激励创意的方式， 体现对人民智慧与文化积淀的珍视。
In the case of noodles, there is no patent for “who invented noodles” – and perhaps that’s for the best. Instead of legal battles, we have a rich dialogue: historians, chefs, and diplomats all contributing to understanding how this food ties us together. In forums like this academicdiplomatic gathering, we have the chance to use such examples to foster greater crosscultural understanding. When Chinese and Indonesian students break bread – or rather, break noodles – together, they partake in a shared story written by their ancestors. Each slurp of mie or mian is a reminder that our cultures have long been in conversation.
以面条为例，我们并没有关于“谁发明了面条”的专利——也许，这正是最理想的状 态。取而代之的，不是法律上的争执，而是一场丰富而持续的文化对话：历史学家、 厨师与外交家共同参与其中，致力于理解这道食物如何将我们紧密相连。在像今天这 样结合学术与外交的论坛中，我们正有机会借此类例子，推动更深层次的跨文化理解 与合作。当中国与印尼的学生一起分享一碗面——或者说共同“掰开”一碗面时，他 们实际上正在参与一段由祖先共同书写的文化故事。每一口“mie”或“mian”的吸吮， 都是对这样一个事实的温柔提醒：我们的文化自古以来就一直在对话之中。
In conclusion, let us celebrate the noodle as a symbol of common heritage – a humble strand of dough that carries with it threads of history, identity, and connection. And as we craft policies and agreements on intellectual property and cultural exchange, let us ensure they are as nourishing and inclusive as the traditions we seek to protect. By doing so, we honor not only China and Indonesia’s contributions to the world’s table, but also the fundamental idea that culture is a feast to be shared.
最最后，让我们共同庆祝面条作为共同文化遗产的象征——这根看似朴素的面团细丝， 实则承载着历史的脉络、身份的印记与人类情感的连接。在制定有关知识产权与文化交流的政策与协议时，让我们确保这些制度如同我们所致力保护的传统一般，具有滋养性与包容性。唯有如此，我们才能真正尊重并传承中印两国为世界餐桌所作出的宝贵贡献，也才能践行那条更深层的信念：文化，是一场值得所有人共享的盛宴。
Last but not least, it is with immense gratitude that I stand before you today to accept this honorary professorship. I extend my deepest thanks to Wu Ke Song, President of FPNU, for bestowing upon me this high honor. My sincere appreciation goes to the General Attorney of Indonesia for their blessings and unwavering support. I am also deeply grateful to STIH Adhyaksa and Yayasan Nagantara Ms Santi, Ulung Rusman and friends for their exceptional organization of this academic visit and their invaluable assistance. To the Indonesian Ambassador to China, thank you for gracing this event with your presence. Finally, to my beloved family – my wife, my son, and my daughter – your love and encouragement are my constant source of strength, and I share this honor with you.
最后但同样重要的是，我怀着无比感激的心情站在这里，接受这份荣誉教授的殊荣。我谨向吴克松校长（福建师范大学）致以我最诚挚的谢意，感谢您授予我这一崇高荣誉。我也要深深感谢印度尼西亚总检察长办公室对我的祝福与始终如一的支持。同 时，我由衷感谢 Adhyaksa 法学院与 Nagantara 基金会韩善美和陈家隆为本次学术访问所作出的精心组织与宝贵协助。我要特别感谢印度尼西亚驻华大使阁下，感谢您在百忙之中出席本次活动，为今天增添光彩。最后，我要向我亲爱的家人——我的妻子、儿子与女儿——表达最深的感激。你们的爱与鼓励始终是我不断前行的力量源泉，我愿与您们共同分享这一份荣耀。

Thank you. Terima kasih. Xièxie. 谢谢大家。